Drink And To Aid Patients To Hold A Cup And Assist Moving

drink and to aid patients to hold a cup and assist moving their hand to mouth if they have co-ordination difficulties (Coleman, 2009). Oral Nutritional Supplements (ONS) Pivi et al. (2011) aimed to find out if the use of ONS would influence the nutritional status of patients with AD. They found that the experimental group that had taken the ONS had a significant increase in weight, body mass index (BMI), arm circumference and arm muscle circumference compared to the control and educational group (Pivi et al., 2011). However, Prince et al. (2014) recognise that ONS can cause complications such as bloating and nausea, consequently, impacting on a regular dietary intake. Patients do not like taking the ONS (Prince et al., 2014) and Hubbard et†¦show more content†¦However, the researchers did assume that a higher consumption of ONS would increase calorific intake and consequently help to improve nutritional status (Allen, Methven and Gosney, 2014). However, Crawley (2009) argues that ONS should be used with caution and only be considered as a short-term intervention that will increase calorific intake in the malnourished patient. Crawley (2009) believes that providing patients with food containing all the nutrients they require and focusing on ways to encourage patients to eat well is important in maintaining adequate long-term nutrition. Search Strategy To complete a thorough search of the literature for the topic area, several databases were used. They included; British Nursing Index, The Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), MEDLINE, ProQuest, PsychINFO, PubMed and Summons. The author also utilised the references presented in research articles to widen their understanding of the subject. Keywords used to produce data included; â€Å"dementia†, â€Å"Alzheimer’s disease†, â€Å"nutrition†, â€Å"malnutrition†, â€Å"oral intake†, â€Å"nurse’s role† and â€Å"environment†. Principles of Boolean logic were applied using â€Å"AND† between keywords to allow inclusion of literature relevant to the research question (Aveyard, 2014). Initially, literature before 2007 was excluded from the search, consequently, producing too little data. ThisShow MoreRelatedCase Study About Pneumonia10478 Words   |  42 PagesI. INTRODUCTION This is the case of patient MCS, a 62 year old female who came to Ospital ng Guiginto with a chief complaint of productive cough with associated difficulty of breathing amp; intermittent fever. She was admitted on July 16, 2012. She was diagnosed with Pneumonia with manifestations of Asthma. Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung parenchyma commonly caused by microbial agents. Classically, pneumonia has been categorized as being bacterial or typical, atypical, anaerobic/cavitaryRead MorePepsi Marketing Plan.13402 Words   |  54 PagesUniversity. Senior Lecturer, School of Business. Department of Marketing. 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Creativity in Literacy Practices Free Essays

string(260) " aspect is more evident in web blogs or online journals in which people often \(1\) write in response to the entries of others, \(2\) write entries addressed to others and \(3\) write with the expectation and even the goal to get as much response from others\." Creativity in Literacy Practices: A TEXTUAL AND CONTEXTUAL APPROACH by Agatha Xaris Villa INTRODUCTION AT PRESENT, THERE ARE A NUMBER OF APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF LINGUISTIC CREATIVITY. THEY DIFFER IN THE WAY THE WAY THAT THEY CONCEPTUALIZE WHAT COUNTS AS CREATIVENESS OR ‘LITERARINESS’ IN LANGUAGE AS WELL AS IN THE METHODS THEY USE TO IDENTIFY AND ANALYZE CREATIVITY IN EVERYDAY LANGUAGE. This essay begins by discussing and exploring the premises of an analysis of creativity at text level following a textual approach to literacy and creativity; assessing the extent to which it is effective in identify creativity in literacy practices such as diaries, letters and graffiti. We will write a custom essay sample on Creativity in Literacy Practices or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, I would like to continue by presenting the argument that while literacy practices do offer opportunities for creativity at text level, the study and identification of creativity in literacy practices may be more productive when studied with a broader perspective – one that goes beyond the limits of the text and considers the influence of context in the production, reception and processing of texts, literary practices and creativity. Creativity in literacy practices at text level LITERACY IS AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF EVERYDAY LIFE AND IS A PART OF EVEN OUR MOST MUNDANE SOCIAL PRACTICES. WHILE THE ROLE WHICH LITERACY PLAYS IN SITUATIONS MAY VARY IN IMPORTANCE, IN THE CONTEXT OF LITERACY EVENTS WHERE LITERACY PLAYS A SIGNIFICANT ROLE, INDIVIDUALS DEVELOP CHARACTERISTIC AND PATTERNED WAYS OF USING AND INTERACTING WITH TEXTS. THESE HABITUAL PATTERNS HOLD DIFFERENT MEANING AND VALUES FOR INDIVIDUALS AND ARE WHAT WE REFER TO AS LITERACY PRACTICES. Creativity in literacy practices at the level of the text may be identified by focusing on special linguistic forms that stand out in texts. This pproach is modeled after what Carter (1999) called an inherency perspective which perceives creativity as being ‘inherent’ in the creative uses of language intrinsic in text. The focus is on the writer’s skill in the manipulation of linguistic forms that constitute text on the phonological, grammatical and semantic level. Roman Jakobson (1960), one of the well-known advocates of this approach, was concerned with the ‘poetic function of language’ which w as believed to be in close relation to literariness in text. He argued that the poetic function of language involves the ‘foregrounding’ of language forms which have the ability to draw attention to themselves – making a noticeable impact on the reader. Foregrounding results from stylistic choices which may come as (1) deviations from the norms of everyday language (e. g. the use of different writing systems, lexis and ‘figurative language’ such as metaphor and simile or (2) prominent patterns of parallelisms in phonology, grammar and semantics (e. g. meter, rhyme, etc. (Maybin and Pearce, 2006, p. 6 – 9). By highlighting the ‘poetic usages of language’, we can identify creativity in diaries at the text level. The metaphoric descriptions and dramatic portrayal of entities and events in diaries are ways in which individuals attempt to explore their feelings regarding their experience of the ‘real world’ that are often difficult to describe. In addition, repeated structures and rh ythms are commonly used in diaries as a form of emphasizing points in the writer’s diary entry. Such examples of ‘poetic language’ may also be identified in letters. In Margaretta Jolly’s (1997) study of war letters, she states that letters are probably ‘the most common form of creative writing. ’ Her examples point out the creative way in which letter-writers are able to use language forms such as imagery, metaphoric and rhetorical devices as well as parallelism (more commonly related to literature) for the purpose increasing the text’s emotional and persuasive impact and highlighting contrast and subtleties of meaning (Maybin, 2006, p. 72). The â€Å"art of graffiti† is a long-standing tradition with the ability to exhibit creativity at text level both in its traditional and embellished form. Creativity is seen in the use of rhythmic repetition, puns and contradictory voices (as in parody and irony), the use of non-standard spelling and punctuation (usually in line with a particular artistic style) and the use of text and decorat ion for aesthetic and communicative purposes. While it is possible to be able to identify creativity in literacy practices at text level, this approach is somewhat limited because it fails to take into account: (1) the interactive features and functions of literacy practice, (2) the influence of its socio-cultural and historical context and more importantly (3) the creativity in language practices that is inherent and emergent from social practices in particular contexts. Therefore, I suggest that a better and more efficient way to identify and evaluate creativity in literacy practices, is one that approaches literacy from a more contextual approach, more specifically from an ethnographic perspective. Creativity and literacy practices from an ethnographic approach According to the ethnographic approach defined by Papen and Tusting (2006, p. 312-359), creativity refers the production of something ‘new’ and ‘original’. In written language, creativeness should not be perceived as a decontextualised, individual activity or as being entirely shaped by context. It should be seen as being dependent on and emergent from the creative literacy practices through which texts are constructed because they are shaped by people, who in pursuit of their own goals and purposes, actively draw on the interactional, contextual and socio-cultural possibilities available in the particular social situation they are embedded. Literacy practices are inherently creative in and of themselves. The ethnographic perspective takes into account the broader social-political context within which creativity is located and through their examination of iteracy practices and texts, advocates of the ethnographic approach found three major characteristics of creativity in writing. To begin, by focusing on people’s literacy practices rather than just texts, they noted that creative texts are produced as a result of interactive collaboration. Diaries, although written by a single person, emerge from an individual’s account and reflection of events and various con versations and interactions with people. Diaries and journals are dialogic practices wherein the writer addresses and responds to a ‘reader’ and have the potential to be re-contextualized in different publications to address a wider readership (Maybin, 2006, p. 269) This dialogical aspect is more evident in web blogs or online journals in which people often (1) write in response to the entries of others, (2) write entries addressed to others and (3) write with the expectation and even the goal to get as much response from others. You read "Creativity in Literacy Practices" in category "Papers" Maybin (2006, p. 73) tells us that letters are even more intensely dialogic in nature. I believe that letters are best viewed as mediums of ‘correspondence’ wherein we present written versions of our personal experience, relationships and identities in relation to an assumed reader who then responds by confirming or questioning. Letters are shaped by and inspire collaborative practices An interesting characte ristic of graffiti that I believe exemplifies the collaborative nature of creativity is the way that graffiti attracts graffiti (Macdonald, 2006). A graffiti-covered wall may look like vandalism to law-enforcers or a rather threatening cacophony of ‘names’ to the common passerby but it constitutes a symbolic exchange between members of a sub-group. In the world of graffiti, tags located on the same space are often interpreted in relation to their positioning and proximity to each other. They may be viewed as a sign of respect, acknowledgement or outright disregard – a reflection of the intensely competitive nature of this practice. In addition to the collaborative nature of creative literary practices, the ethnographic approach pays careful attention to the influence of the context of reading and writing in the development of creative practices (Papen and Tusting, 2006, p. 320). They argued that in any given opportunity, there is particular set of possibilities and constraints that provides the opportunity for creativity. This involves affordances (i. e. properties of the environment, arising from its material characteristics which may be positive or negative depending on the individual) from new forms of technology, discourse conventions as well as inter-textual and material resources available to producers of text. An important thing to note is while possibilities may determine what is possible in any given context, the possibilities associated with a setting do not determine what is created. For example, while people may be able to describe events, sights and even people through the practice of diaries and letters, there are abstractions such as feelings and intensely traumatic situations (such as in war) that are far more difficult to describe and articulate. In order to overcome this type of ‘constraint’ on expression, writers make use of metaphoric language and parallelisms, enabling them to represent their feelings and experiences in ‘words’ that their readers may be able to relate to. Creativity may also emerge from socially-constrained situations. Graffiti emerged from the same socially and economically impoverished areas in America where gangs are notoriously prominent. Because graffiti is an act of illegitimacy and opposition, graffiti artists face the constant risk of being caught by the police or by rival gangs each time they make a ‘tag’ or do a ‘piece’. But this high-risk and intensely competitive literacy practice is a stage on which young men may choose an identity of their own making, present it in the style of their choice and regain control of their own ‘fate’ – free from the constraints of their socio-economic backgrounds (Mcdonald, 2006). Social, economic or technological changes may result in the introduction of new affordance and constraints to any given context (Papen and Tusting, 2006, p. 325). For example, the popularization of the internet brought about the development of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC), resulting in the creation of new literary genres and changes in literacy practices. According to Kress (2003), creativity may be perceived as inherent in CMC using the two concepts of ‘transformation’ and ‘transduction’. Transformation is the way that the text producers manipulate the forms of signs within a mode to suit their needs and interests. Transduction, on the other hand, refers to the movement of ‘semiotic material’ between modes where meaning configured in one mode is moved to another. Online diaries, known as online ‘blogs, perform the same function as traditional diaries and even employ the same linguistic forms. However, bloggers now have access to a greater degree of interactive, inter-textual and multi-modal resources. Whereas in the past, writers creatively used language to express their thoughts and feelings through metaphors and similes, bloggers can now make use of pictures, videos, music, emoticons, avatars and (through hyper-linking) other texts to represent themselves and their lives online. Similarly, the literacy practice of letter-writing is far from extinct in today’s modern ear but has taken up a new form – that is, electronic mail (e-mail). As a medium of communication, email has enabled cross-cultural communication and the creation of online relationships and ‘networking’ communities. Finally, the ethnographic perspective sees creative literacy practices in everyday life as being embedded in socio-cultural practices situated in institutional, political and economic structures. These structures are in a constant state of movement and change therefore taking on a historical perspective towards literacy practices is a necessity. Based on observation and study, changes in socio-economic conditions are often accompanied by changes in the linguistic and semiotic means available to a community as in the case of the following account of changes to a Nepali rural community Papen and Tusting, 2006, p. 328). The 1980s was a time of great social and economic change in Junigau, Nepal. In 1983, the village set up its first high school, providing greater access to education for men and women – resulting in great changes to the literacy practices used by the young. A new form of ‘prolonged courtship’ (i. e. , love-letter writing) had become increasingly popula r among the youth, improving gender relations and changing marriage practices (as the young were becoming more resistant towards arranged marriages). The way in which these love-letters encapsulated new ideas on personal identity and individual agency which held no cultural precedent in their village is an example of how social and cultural change is closely related to the creation of new literacy practices (Papen and Tusting, 2006, p. 328) Conclusion ANALYZING CREATIVITY AT TEXT LEVEL, ALLOWED US TO IDENTIFY CREATIVENESS IN TEXTS AS IS REVEALED BY THE USE OF POETIC LANGUAGE OR LINGUISTIC FORMS COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH LITERATURE. THIS APPROACH HOWEVER WAS VERY MUCH LIMITED DUE MAINLY BY THE NARROWNESS OF THE INHERENCY MODEL’S DEFINITION OF WHAT CONSTITUTES AS CREATIVITY AS WELL AS TO ITS LACK OF CONSIDERATION OF CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AND THE INHERENCY OF CREATIVITY IN LITERACY PRACTICES. In taking an ethnographic/historical perspective, characteristics of creativity that are inherent in literacy practices become more salient. Through our understanding of the three characteristics of creativity in literacy practices, we’ve identified creativity beyond the level of the text. This contextual approach showed us how creativity is exhibited in literacy practices in the way that (1) texts are read and used, how the writer interacts with other individuals;(2) how people are able to creatively use language in relation to the possibilities and constraints available in particular contexts and finally, (3) individuals are able to adapt and respond to changes in discourse practices and socio-cultural conditions. References CARTER, R. (1999). ‘COMMON LANGUAGE: CORPUS, CREATIVITY AND COGNITION’, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, 8(3), P. 196-216 Jakobson, J. (1960). Closing statement: linguistics and poetics’, in T. A. Sebeok (ed. ) Style in Language, MIT Press. Jolly, M. (1997). ‘Everyday Letters and Literary Form: Coresspondence from the Second World War’, unpublished MPhil, University of Sussex. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new Media Age. London and New York, Routledge. Macdonald, N. (2006). Chapter 6. Reading B: ‘The spray-can i s mighteier than the sword: graffiti writing and the construction of masculine identity’ in Maybin, J. and Swann, J. (eds) The art of English: everyday creativity. Palgrave Macmillan/The Open University, p. 293 – 302. Maybin, J. 2006)(Ed. ) Chapter 6 ‘Writing the self’, in Maybin, J. and Swann, J. (eds) The art of English: everyday creativity. Palgrave Macmillan/The Open University, p. 261 – 279. Maybin, J. and Pearce, M. (2006). Chapter 1 ‘Literature and creativity in English’ in Goodman, S. and O’Halloran, K. (eds) The art of English: literary creativity. Palgrave Macmillan/The Open University, p. 6-9. Papen, U. and Tusting, K. (2006). Chapter 7 ‘Literacies, collaboration and context’ in Maybin, J. and Swann, J. (eds) The art of English: everyday creativity. Palgrave Macmillan/The Open University, p. 312 – 331. How to cite Creativity in Literacy Practices, Papers

Leadership In The Work Environment Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Leadership In The Work Environment. Answer: Introduction A critical analysis has been done on the approach by the leaders on leadership in the work environment. How these approaches affect the workers or employees in an organization. Three interviews has been identified from successful leaders who have embarked their approach on leadership in Australia that how they have sustained and improved the leadership effectiveness in their organization. The cases given in the task has been studied and explained thoroughly to clear the concepts (Holt, 2015). And based on all the aspects which are being compared and contrasted by different perspectives and their resulted outcomes shows how to improve the leadership effectiveness in the organization. The issues which are faced by leaders in the organization are identified and being advised by the current research done in this regard. Lastly conclusions has been drawn and recommendations made that these theories and studies form a few strategies to improve leadership effectiveness in the organization ( Antonakis, 2017). Interviews identified The interviews which are being identified here are of Sam Walsh the CEO of Rio-Tinto which is a largest metal and mining corporation. Where he said that Leadership matters and the interview was provided by N2Growth, Gordon Berridge who asks questions and provide a complete view of his background and how he has inspired everybody. The second interview identified is of Alan Joyce a CEO of Qantas Airlines, he talked about his experiences that how he cope up with all the issues these airlines were having and takes a toll after few years and reaches a new growth in the global industry. The third interview is of Scott Farquhar a CEO of Altassian, he is one of the co-founder of this organization and started from the scratch where he knew nothing and got no such experience in handling a business on a big scale but started his way out by forming small group of people and lead them in a direction towards a particular objective (Hathaway et al., 2017). There are many renowned CEO in Australia who are being awarded as Best Australian leader of the era and their success is what be the talk of the town. I have chosen these particular CEOs only and the reason behind the selection is clear as these three leaders have started their journey being a CEO from a scratch when companies they took over were on a downturn and having crisis, no growth was suspected in the years gone by when all lose hopes of gaining any profit. These leaders are known to have a thick skin as they took high risks and accepted the challenges with an open mind. They carry all the good leadership qualities and follows their different approach towards their organization. Also in their varied interviews they have explained thoroughly how to be a strong leader even in complex situations and how much leadership affects growth of an organization. They believed in themselves even after facing many criticism by other leaders and took risk (Yammarino, 2013). Analysis Here are the cases being analyzed on the basis of biographies of these CEOs, they are being compared and contrasted critically that how these leaders are constructed and conceptualize the leadership in their organization. There are various concepts of leadership to follow and each one of them has its own aspect which needs to be match up with the requirements of a particular organization. Every leadership style has its own functionalities so a leader must go through the organization structure and ask all the necessary questions required in order to get through the processes and procedure being followed by organization from years. It gives a perspective to a leader that what needs to be done to improve the current situation of crisis and plan out the long term goals. The conceptualization help leaders to form strategies and take risk, provide mitigation with the risks in case where mistakes are spotted it can be undone at that point of time. It is explained below by all CEOs that how they have described their concepts and understanding of leadership (Day et al., 2014). One of the renowned CEO in Rio Tinto, which is one of the largest metal and mining corp. Sam Walsh who is a widely known name in the industry. He has started his carrier in purchasing and switched in sales and marketing further into mining, manufacturing later to general management in a business operation in around 40 countries. He said in his interview that he was looking around for a fresh challenge in an international company based in Australia and founded Rio-Tinto as his path to fulfill his and companys ambition altogether. Rio-Tinto is headquartered in Melbourne, Australia under the name Rio Tinto Ltd. After Sam Walsh took up the seat as CEO in Rio Tinto, the industry reached to a new level of growth and positioned at a very high rank. Comparing to the past records of Rio Tinto when it was in a downward spiral and no growth has been seen over the time. At that moment Sam took over and in the meantime it reaches to the new level of success. In the interview it was mentioned that his successor, Jean-Sebastian being grateful regarding the success of the business even after experiencing such huge losses and was impressed to see Sam having an open mind when he entered the company and how he has restructured this organization from a start even in the complex situations that it was having in past years. Sam told the interviewer that when he joined the organization he already had some inaccurate sights of the company and thought it is having diverse operations. The company had several issues at different scales at a time (Agnoletti, 2015). He has opened up in the interview that he strongly believe, the mentors and leaders are of a great importance as they lead the whole organization in a direction where all work in a uniformity towards a defined goal (Boerma et al., 2017). In his case, as he said he was fortunate enough to have Paul Victor, who is a Doctor of Psychology having a background of manufacturing industry. He assisted Sam, as Sam being new to the territory which requires restructuring and balancing in a right way that the focus can be maintained on both the future and the present scenario (Helsloot, 2017). He assures that Rio-Tinto relatively is the strongest among all mining companies. The balance sheet shows the strong points and higher profitability rates. The costs, working capital, and the capital expenditure are being reduced to a certain rate. Rio-Tinto is going to continue to invest in assets namely copper, bauxite and iron ore. It has also been forecasted that it is going to generate momentous cash and make shareholder returns in order to grow more. He had over 55,000 employees in his team to lead, to work through the team he enabled certain strategies and plans and communicate them to the organization to implement them. To carry on such process one needs to have a good leadership quality and organization will provide a feedback on such achievement. He shared his strategy that he had an innovation programme in his organization named mine of the Future, in order to make Mine industry to look different in coming years with the attractive segments on a low cost assets having qual ity assured deposits and diversified operations (McCleskey, 2015). Alan Joyce a CEO of Qantas Airlines has marked his success with the flying colors in these years. Even after facing a backlash by grounding the airlines he sustained in such situation and take Qantas to a new level of success. Now Qantas is one of the profitable airlines globally. Alans gutsy decisions lead this airlines to overcome the darkest days it has lived and succeed today. In his view, a leader must have a thick skin to make tough and risky decisions in regard to challenge in every walk of situation. He has mentioned some of the tips to how to be a strong leader they include having a vision, as it is obvious that team needs a vision of strategies or a direction in which they have to work towards a defined objective. A team having a clear vision of what needs to be done at the moment with all support lead to success (Youssef-Morgan, 2013). Second tip he explained that creating a diverse team would help to reach a certain set goal. A diverse team gives a broader knowledge of ba ckground, varied skills, views and education which provides ideas to innovate and being creative on the other side. Joyce believes in empowering and asking questions as compare to other who would believe in commanding. Asking questions gives a clear view and encourage people in the organization to put out their views, ideas and discuss them with the team this way decisions can be made easily. The workers would also feel engaged in such decisions which motivates them to work out best of their abilities. He also believes in calculating risks associated with every action. He encourage at his part the team to calculate or analyze the risks in advance and mitigation as well. This behavior in the organization plays an important role to overcome future risks. When risks are calculated in advance they come with few mistakes as well and Joyce accept this fact (Hooijberg, 2014). But if these mistakes are detected in an early stage it can be cleaned up within the time being. Joyce says being f lexible and transparent are the qualities of a strong leader so even if a mistake appears be flexible enough to admit such mistake and clean up. When Qantas was in crisis Joyce has asked all related questions of what everybody know of the situation. As he believes that questions should be asked of what you know and what you dont know so he makes sure to ask all and sort the dispute well lastly came to a conclusion. One of the impressive thing Joyce said is leaders should be honest and open. Such quality has proven Alan a self-made persona who works hard and smart at a time (Hargreaves et al., 2014). Scott Farquhar, CEO of Atlassian a software enterprise who produces tools to help business teams and technical teams to plan their projects and build software. Scott has been awarded as the Australian IT professional in earlier years. He is also known to be a Keynote speaker, where he has spoken to audiences around the globe and encourage, mentor the entrepreneurs by sharing his own experiences and knowledge with all. Scotts approach to leadership is transactional in the said interview taken by Business of software USA. He came with the approach in context with innovation which is considered as an important aspect to run business and compete globally. Here a leader need to create something new and to execute the same he has to manage all the kiosk it creates. The innovation happens after a team is hired and work together towards a particular goal but it does not happen as smooth as it seems it requires a good leader who would put all his efforts in making a way where the team will be directed (Latham, 2014). Scott explained few areas where leaders need to focus in order to innovate they are: Clear Vision- There are various questions in the minds of employees regarding innovation that how it is going to happen, what actually needs to be done and what expectations have been made. When vision is being made clear it answers all the queries of employees who are there to execute the plans and strategies formed. The ones who are working on the product must be aware of the fact that why innovation is happening and how it is going to result. The specifications should be made clear in the organization to avoid any dilemma (Beck, 2014). Customer Feedback- Another aspect in this regard is getting customer feedback. In a software company it is the basic requirement to ask for customer feedback as they will be informing the company whether they are experiencing problems, bug or any technical issue which needs to be solved. Scott explains that they had implemented a process named Contextual Enquiry where few of the staff spends their most of the day with customers to know the problem they are facing. It gives a clear picture of how their product is working and what is required to fix the bugs if any (Bullock, 2014). Applying Persona- After experiencing few issues in leadership Scott opinionated that we should apply persona where our company is going to target few customer segments and they will be served depending on their demands. It sounded lame at the first time but later it shows dramatic results and lead the innovation in a right direction (Chemers, 2014). He concluded that to be a strong leader, a proper diligence should be taken while managing a team. The qualities a leader needs is to manage a team in a direction by making their vision clear and if employees are sorted it brings harmony in their work also it becomes easy to manage all the tasks and the whole team as well. At last if any crisis occur in any such stage it will be resolved and undone right away so that it can be assured there are less chances of losses a company can have (Bryman, 2013). Organizational issues The organizational issue faced by Atlassian was not handling innovation well enough as it required to be. Every company ambitioned that they are going to invent something new to reach a new level of success and mark their position in global market. But they are lacking in planning and strategizing the moves to be followed to execute such plan. In Atlassian, Scott Farquhar made a few mistakes regarding planning the innovation strategies internally. There are few areas where they were lacking are, providing a clear vision to employees that what they actually need to work on and why they are working on, what would it be resulting in. By having a clear vision employees get a particular direction to move on which helps in achieving a certain goal within a time limit having the best outcomes. Another issue which was detected was not getting customer feedback. They do have a public bug tracker but it was not in use as much as it was required to so they need to get customer feedback in order to fix bugs as the ultimate user of the software only gives a feedback regarding bugs and problem they are facing. Employees in Atlassian were taking this task lightly (Pava, 2015). Based on the current leadership research these issues can be resolved by adopting new leadership styles which are Servant Leadership and Situational leadership. In these leadership styles a leader can be flexible enough with an open mind approach where they portray themselves as servants who would hear all the queries of their employees and makes sure they are present whenever employee need them to help their way out to reach their set goals. A servant leadership is one of the influential leadership style where they create an informal relation with employees but perform their duties as well. This leadership style help Atlassian to resolve small crisis occurred and being a startup this is what a leader needs a direction and a style to follow and lead their team accordingly (Northouse, 2015). Conclusion It is concluded from this whole critical analysis that having a strong good leadership quality is important for a leader to take their organization to a whole new level of success. Leaders must have an ample knowledge about various leadership styles that they can follow and lead their team in that way (Schyns, 2016). Through current research it is being noted that a leadership style adopted by a leader should be aligned with the organizational objectives as the objectives showcase what an organization needs to fulfill and where to reach. Objectives mark a way to a particular direction in which personnel has to move on. So the alignment of leadership style with the objectives matters and much of an important step taken in this case to avoid crisis. The leaders who are being identified in the assignment have given strong opinions regarding their experiences in the field of leadership. They have explained how they concurred in a global market even in the worse situation where there were no hopes of growth at all. The varied leadership styles which they followed have been mentioned in the interviews which help other leaders to know more about the aspects of leadership. They have experienced many crisis while following their styles but in no time they managed to survive and lead their organization towards the achievement of their own objectives (Avolio et al., 2013) References Agnoletti, V., Gambale, G., Meineri, M. and Macario, A., 2015. Operating Room Leadership: Who is the One.J Anesth Clin Res,6(576), p.2. Alvesson, M., 2016. Studying leadership: Taking meaning, relationality and ideology seriously.Routledge Companion to Leadership. Antonakis, J., 2017.The nature of Antonakis, J., 2017.The nature of leadership. Sage publications.leadership. Sage publications. Avolio, B.J. and Yammarino, F.J. eds., 2013. Introduction to, and overview of, transformational and charismatic leadership. InTransformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead 10th Anniversary Edition(pp. xxvii-xxxiii). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Beck, D.E. and Cowan, C., 2014.Spiral dynamics: Mastering values, leadership and change. John Wiley Sons. Beritelli, P. and Bieger, T., 2014. From destination governance to destination leadershipdefining and exploring the significance with the help of a systemic perspective.Tourism Review,69(1), pp.25-46. Boerma, M., Coyle, E.A., Dietrich, M.A., Dintzner, M.R., Drayton, S.J., Early, J.L., Edginton, A.N., Horlen, C.K., Kirkwood, C.K., Lin, A.Y. and Rager, M.L., 2017. Point/Counterpoint: Are Outstanding Leaders Born or Made?.American journal of pharmaceutical education,81(3), p.58. Bryman, A. ed., 2013.Leadership and organizations. Routledge. Bullock, J., 2013. Are leaders born or are they made? The case of Alexander the Great.Leadership Organization Development Journal. Chemers, M., 2014.An integrative theory of leadership. Psychology Press. Day, D.V., Griffin, M.A. and Louw, K.R., 2014. The climate and culture of leadership in organizations.The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Climate and Culture, p.101. Hargreaves, A., Boyle, A. and Harris, A., 2014.Uplifting leadership: How organizations, teams, and communities raise performance. John Wiley Sons. Hathaway, S.B., Rosen, J., Myers, A.L. and Laws, R., 2017. Leadership Development: An Integrated Approach to Changing Trainee Leadership Attitudes, Skills, and Beliefs (Descriptive Abstract).Academic Pediatrics,17(5), p.e2. Helsloot, I. and Groenendaal, J., 2017. It's meaning making, stupid! Success of public leadership during flash crises.Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management. Holt, A., 2015. The importance of leadership. Hooijberg, R. and Lane, N., 2014. Strategic leadership.Wiley Encyclopedia of Management. Latham, J.R., 2014. Leadership for quality and innovation: Challenges, theories, and a framework for future research.Quality Management Journal, 21 (1),5. McCleskey, J.A., 2014. Situational, transformational, and transactional leadership and leadership development.Journal of Business Studies Quarterly,5(4), p.117. Northouse, P.G., 2015.Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications. Pava, M., 2015.Leading with meaning: Using covenantal leadership to build a better organization. St. Martin's Press. Schyns, B. and Riggio, R.E., 2016. Implicit Leadership Theories.Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, pp.1-7. Yammarino, F., 2013. Leadership: Past, present, and future.Journal of Leadership Organizational Studies,20(2), pp.149-155. Youssef-Morgan, C.M. and Luthans, F., 2013. Positive leadership: Meaning and application across cultures.

Napleon And Wellington Essays - Knights Of The Golden Fleece

Napleon And Wellington Napoleon Bonaparte and Arthur, Duke of Wellington The careers of Napoleon Bonaparte and Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington, contrasted in many different ways. The manner in which both rose to glory was quite dissimilar. Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica on August 15, 1769 and was thought to be the most formidable military commander since Alexander the great. He was a bright, charismatic child of noble background. As a boy, he was described as good ?willed and generous. At nine, through his father's influence, Napoleon went off to military school in Paris at the expense of King Louis XVI. It was here that it was discovered that he had and amazing brain capacity and was considered a genius, yet nobody could imagine his success and all of the dead bodies he left in his wake for the sake of peace. Wellesley, on the other hand, was born on May 1, 1769, in Dublin and was also of noble background. As an adult, Wellesley would rise to rule the British empire, but as a schoolboy his future looked grim and lacked the genius that Napoleon possessed. His situation became so desperate that he was sent to military school, where his metamorphosis was astonishing. He found that he enjoyed the army and needed it to establish a career in life. He was given the title ?1st Duke of Wellington? due to his military successes. In school, Napoleon was always the leader and could always win at games due to his strategies and his impeccability at outwitting the other team. He was attracted to the military for a number of reasons and he had secret weapons such as his extraordinary intelligence. The military schools of Napoleon and Wellesley never engaged in competition so they never met. Napoleon graduated military school in 1785, at the age of 16, and joined the artillery as a second lieutenant. He studied firepower and trained in the artillery, which would help Napoleon become a genius in this field. Meanwhile, in 1787, Wellesley was commissioned to the British army and, although he was extremely ambitious, his youth sometimes showed. In 1790, Wellesley was elected to the Irish parliament and participated in the unsuccessful campaign of 1794-95 against French forces in the Netherlands. Upon returning to England in 1805, he was rewarded with knighthood. After the Revolution began, Napoleon became a lieutenant colonel in the Corsican National Guard but, in 1793, Corsica declared independence, and Bonaparte, a French patriot and a Republican, fled to France with his family. He was assigned, as a captain, to an army besieging Toulon, a naval base that, aided by a British fleet, was in revolt against the republic. Replacing a wounded artillery general, he drove the British fleet from the harbor, and Toulon fell. Napoleon was then promoted to brigadier general at the age of 24 and in 1796 he married Josephine de Beauharnais, the widow of an aristocrat guillotined in the Revolution and the mother of two children. Also in 1796, Bonaparte was made commander of the French army in Italy and due to his victories, he became quite well known and respected by the French. In the same year, Wellesley, now holding the rank of colonel in the army, went to India, where he received his first independent command. Wellesley's brother was appointed governor-general of India in 1797, and Arthur took part in several military campaigns and returned to England in 1805. In 1798, Bonaparte led an expedition to Turkish-ruled Egypt, which he conquered yet his fleet was destroyed. Undismayed, he reformed the Egyptian government and law, abolishing serfdom and feudalism and guaranteeing basic rights. In 1799, he won a smashing victory over the Turks but failed to capture Syria. Napoleon then decided to leave his army and return to save France, where he joined a conspiracy against the government. He and his colleagues seized power in the coup d'etat of November 1799, and established a new regime called the Consulate. Under its constitution, Bonaparte, as first consul, had almost dictatorial powers. In 1802 the constitution was revised to make Bonaparte consul for life and then in 1804 it made him emperor. He reorganized the administration, simplified the court system, and all schools in France were

Free Essays on A Running Experience

Pound, pound, pound. With each stride, fatigue accumulates. Lactic acid fills my legs, making every motion harder. My mind asks me, â€Å"Why are you doing this? Why put yourself through all this pain?† My heart responds: â€Å"Because I have to.† Running is a painful sport. Ask anyone. There are even shirts that say, â€Å"My sport is your punishment.† So it would be hard to comprehend why I would want to do this every day, running 10 miles, with each mile faster than a lot of people’s fastest mile. It’s because of the sense of accomplishment achieved, pushing through the pain and coming out on top. Never has this been most evident than at Cross Country League Finals. I was in the first race of the day. As I toed the line, thoughts were racing. Sweat was pouring. All I could think of was the great amount of competition in this race. But they say the time before the race is always the worst part, the anticipation, the nervousness. But once the gun goes off, all this anxiety is erased. Boom! Suddenly, all thoughts are erased. I start off slow, as my biggest problem has always been starting off too fast and getting tired early. I am in 30th place and the first mile marker of the three-mile race is seen up ahead. I decide now is the time to step it up. As I pass the marker, my stride lengthens, my pulse quickens, my legs get heavier, but I push on. Through the pain, through the tiredness, the shortness of breathe. Just one more. Just one more runner I tell myself, as I pass, runner after runner. Finally, there is only a quarter mile left. I realize it’s just me and a runner from a rival school. We are both exhausted, both hurting, but neither of us give in, then there is only 50 yards left. Somewhere inside me, a voice says, â€Å"GO.† I go. And I win. Through the pain, through the exhaustion, I win.... Free Essays on A Running Experience Free Essays on A Running Experience Pound, pound, pound. With each stride, fatigue accumulates. Lactic acid fills my legs, making every motion harder. My mind asks me, â€Å"Why are you doing this? Why put yourself through all this pain?† My heart responds: â€Å"Because I have to.† Running is a painful sport. Ask anyone. There are even shirts that say, â€Å"My sport is your punishment.† So it would be hard to comprehend why I would want to do this every day, running 10 miles, with each mile faster than a lot of people’s fastest mile. It’s because of the sense of accomplishment achieved, pushing through the pain and coming out on top. Never has this been most evident than at Cross Country League Finals. I was in the first race of the day. As I toed the line, thoughts were racing. Sweat was pouring. All I could think of was the great amount of competition in this race. But they say the time before the race is always the worst part, the anticipation, the nervousness. But once the gun goes off, all this anxiety is erased. Boom! Suddenly, all thoughts are erased. I start off slow, as my biggest problem has always been starting off too fast and getting tired early. I am in 30th place and the first mile marker of the three-mile race is seen up ahead. I decide now is the time to step it up. As I pass the marker, my stride lengthens, my pulse quickens, my legs get heavier, but I push on. Through the pain, through the tiredness, the shortness of breathe. Just one more. Just one more runner I tell myself, as I pass, runner after runner. Finally, there is only a quarter mile left. I realize it’s just me and a runner from a rival school. We are both exhausted, both hurting, but neither of us give in, then there is only 50 yards left. Somewhere inside me, a voice says, â€Å"GO.† I go. And I win. Through the pain, through the exhaustion, I win....

Code Name Jane - Abortion Counseling Service 1969-1973

Code Name Jane - Abortion Counseling Service 1969-1973 Jane was the code name of a feminist abortion referral and counseling service in Chicago from 1969 to 1973. The official name of the group was the Abortion Counseling Service of Womens Liberation. Jane disbanded after the Supreme Courts Roe v. Wade decision legalized most first and second trimester abortions in the United States. Historical Context Prior to the  Roe v. Wade  decision, abortion was illegal nearly everywhere in the United States, although women had been terminating unwanted or dangerous pregnancies for centuries.  Thousands of women had died from illegal, back-alley abortions in the United States and around the world before the procedure was legalized. For women wishing or needing to end a pregnancy, options were scarce and gruesome: sketchy doctors in unsanitary conditions, risking being caught in a sting, or physical or chemical DIY abortifacients. Underground Abortion Service The leaders of Jane were part of the Chicago Womens Liberation Union (CWLU). Women who called seeking help spoke to a contact code named Jane, who referred the caller to an abortion provider. Like the Underground Railroad of the previous century, the activists of Jane broke the law in order to save womens lives.  Jane helped an estimated 10,000 to 12,000 women obtain abortions without fatalities. The group began in 1969 in Chicago, advertising with simple ads in alternative and student newspapers. At first, the Jane activists tried to find reliable doctors and arranged for callers to meet the abortionists in secret locations. A caller would leave a message on the networks answering machine, and a Jane would call her back, collect the necessary information, and pass it along to a Big Jane who handled the logistical aspects. The patients would first be taken to one place for counseling before being secretly led to a facility for the procedure itself. Eventually, some Jane women learned to perform abortions themselves. Since many of the male doctors who performed illegal abortions charged astronomical prices, the Janes learned medical skills and would charge as little as 10% or even less of a male doctors fee. As detailed in the book The Story of Jane: The Legendary Underground Feminist Abortion Service by Laura Kaplan (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995), one of Janes goals was to give women a sense of control and knowledge in a situation that otherwise made them powerless. Jane sought to work with the women, not do something to them. Jane also tried to protect women, who were often in difficult financial circumstances, from being exploited by abortionists who could and would charge any price they could get from a woman who was desperate for an abortion. Counseling and Medical Procedures The women of Jane learned the basics of performing abortions. They also induced miscarriages for certain pregnancies and brought in midwives who could assist the induced women. If women went to a hospital emergency room after inducing a miscarriage, they risked being turned over to the police. In 1972, the worst did happen. Chicago police raided one of the apartments used as a base of operations for the Janes. Seven women were arrested and charged for their roles in facilitating the illegal abortion procedures. Even then, the Janes worked to protect the identities and safety of the women who had trusted them. While in the police van itself, the arrested women ripped up the cards with their patients identifying information and swallowed the bits of paper that contained the most crucial details.   Jane also provided counseling, health information and sex education. Following the  Roe  decision, the network disbanded, as its services were no longer needed. In the 21st century, however, as local governments have chipped away at access to abortion services, similar networks of women helping women have popped up across the country, this time with access to modern medicine. The Women Jane Helped According to Jane by Laura Kaplan, the women who sought abortion help from Jane included: Women who could not care for a childWomen who became pregnant even though they used contraceptionWomen whose male partners forbade them to use contraceptionWomen who thought they were no longer fertileGirls who did not (yet) understand how reproductive biology works Women who came to Jane were of various classes, ages, races and ethnicities. The feminist activists of Jane said they had helped females from age 11 through age 50. Other Groups Nationwide There were other small abortion referral groups in cities across the United States. Womens groups and clergy were among those who created compassionate networks to help women find safe, legal access to abortion. The story of Jane is also told in a 1996 documentary film called Jane: An Abortion Service. Sources: Haberman, Clyde. Code Name Jane: The Women Behind A Covert Abortion Network.  The New York Times  14 Oct. 2018,  https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/14/us/illegal-abortion-janes.html. Kaplan, Laura.  The  Story of Jane: The Legendary Underground Feminist Abortion Service.  New York: Pantheon Books, 1995.

Is It Irrational Not to Be a Consequentialist Essay

Is It Irrational Not to Be a Consequentialist - Essay Example Thus, there is the establishment that the kind of action taken by the individual, either upright or rather morally acceptable behavior is what leads to the result. However, it also states that in the presence of morally wrong behavior, it does account for any bad or rather deeming consequences. In the paper, there is the clear exploration of the question whether it is irrational not to be of the consequentialism mind. The question is definitely one asked by people over ages and many are times that an ideal answer has lacked to emerge. Most people are of the concept that a person who sides with the consequentialism ideology is irrational. This is, however, not always true, as only the pessimists look at the ideology in that manner. â€Å"This is explained in that the thought of it being irrational is fueled by the thought of a consequence that will be very detrimental. It would hurt either the performer of the action or even the people that will be pretentious of the action either di rectly or indirectly† (Mill, 2008, 77). This basis is not legitimate on its own because of poor or ignored review of the other concept of thought and consequences of actions. This supports the notion that goes by the adage that the result of something is clearly justified by the means used to achieve it. On the other hand, there are those that are clearly optimistic by thinking that despite the manner or the method used to get to a point, the mind ought to fathom the consequences. Irrational not to be on the consequentialism ideology describes the optimists vividly. â€Å"As they are described, they just carry out their activities without the perception of the looming danger in case the idea or the project they may be contemplating working out may not conceive the desired conclusion† (Singer, 2006, 49). One of the well-known scientists in the field of human perception, Professor T.M focused his views on the issue using the concept of human rights. â€Å"The professor w as recognized to be very thorough in his explanation. He did this in an effort to explain the nature of both the ones who term the ideology irrational and rational† (Scheffler, 2004, 167). The professor explained clearly that if a person has the right to carry out a certain desired act knowing it will not endanger other people; the consequences of exercising rights are self and hence, there is the allowing of the practice. In the review of this subject matter, focusing on the general ideology is not convincing and detailed enough. Hence, the scrutiny by breaking it down to the various philosophies that comprise the general ideology of consequentialism has to happen. One of the comprising philosophies is Utilitarianism. â€Å"A famous historian by the name of Jeremy Bentham was known for his advocacy of the concept. In his explanation of the philosophy, he claimed that for a human to take a certain course of action, there are two main perceptions that linger in his mind. One o f them is gratification, while the one is misery† (Samuel, 2007, 127). The historian stated that the searching of pleasure could make a person go through misery as long as the result was going to be pleasure. For example a mass murderer who goes out on a killing spree to satisfy his pleasure of seeing people suffering. â€Å"With this notion, it is thus noted that this form of utilitarianism describes a member irrational to be a consequentialist†

What type of creative person are you IN other worlds, How are you Essay

What type of creative person are you IN other worlds, How are you creative How does your creativity benefit you - Essay Example In terms of creativity, I am a person who pays attention to detail. In any situation, paying attention to the small things that any ordinary person would overlook enables me to always come up with creative solutions. In terms of artistic ability, I have done some poems and drawings which showcase my creativity. However, I can assertively state that creativity is not like talent; it is not naturally acquired. In contrast, it is an art which one has to learn to nurture. Once one gains the creative aspect, it becomes part of own lifestyle. My creativity benefits me in many ways. First, life presents different challenges that would require creative decisions to overcome. In such instances, I have always found solution to most of my problems through creativity. For instance, I was not born in a well of family. Consequently, I did not have enough pocket money as my classmates in high school. However, I made up for the money I did have by selling some paintings at a fee whenever there was an opportunity to do so. Besides, school work always demands creativity. Most of the questions asked during exams in subjects like mathematics or social sciences require engagement of some creative thoughts. In such cases, applying the knowledge gained in class is usually accompanied with some creativity. It is in such instances that I have come to appreciate creativity. In fact, in studies not requiring theoretical knowledge as a background, I have always excelled. The most significant aspect of creativity that has benefited me most is in my social life. Being a foreign student, it is a little bit different to get integrate with every student. However, as a creative being, I find myself easy while interacting with other students. During my first days in school, communication was not so easy given the speech impediment that I had. However, this did not bar me from communicating with my colleagues as I always came up with creative means of talking to them.

Technologies vs Traditional Skill Essay Example for Free

Technologies vs Traditional Skill Essay The traditional skills seems to be forgotten and dying due to the betterment of technology. The enhancement of technology improves the quality of life in the aspect of education, medication, and communication. The advantages of the improvement of technology can be seen in the field of education. The advancement in technology helps the students in their learning. The use of technology like projector in class makes the learning fun and easy to be understood by the students. In some schools, they use e-learning as a medium for the students to easily accessed to their teachers and learning. Now, a teacher does not need to use chalk and wasting their energy to write on the blackboard. Another contribution of the development of technology is in the aspect of medication. The body of a person can easily be analyzed by using the x-ray technology, microscope, scanners and many others. The revolutionized medicines and surgical tools make the treatment and surgery become less painful. The treatments become more efficient and many health problems can be cured easily. Lastly, communication is no longer limited because of the development of technology. In the past, people wrote and sent information through letter and telegram, which requires a long time to be received by the receiver. But now, information can be sent and received just by a click. Whether it is emergency services, friends, family or work related issues; we now have cell phones, PDA’s, email, and other ways of electronically transferring information we need to communicate for whatever reason. To sum up, there is no need to retain the traditional methods as the advanced technologies have already made the life ultimately easier.

Revolution Girl Style: Fifty Years of Women in Rock and Roll Essay

Revolution Girl Style: Fifty Years of Women in Rock and Roll Rock and roll was born of a black man's soul and a white man's...well, his whiteness; his wallet and radio station. Rock is the white man's version of black man's music; it's full of rebellion and rawness and soul, a style of music that captured America's youth and the fire and brimstone of the clergy's private hell. Elvis heard Big Mama Thornton's throaty and soulful "Hound Dog" and the rest is history; unquestionable talent aside, it was his white skin that allowed certain DJs to play him on the radio in the midst of the rigid segregation of the nineteen-fifties. Ever since then, rock has constantly walked the line between trendsetters and trendfollowers; those who innovate and those who capitalize. It is, perhaps, a natural occurance when you combine rebellion with big business. An innovative band or artist does something raw and passionate; other artists or labels take it and water it down just enough to make it marketable. As such, rock also has to keep reinventing itself, for t oday's innovation will quickly become tomorrow's tripe. The rawness of rock either frightens people or attracts them; its ability to shock and offend is legendary and vital to the survival of the genre. "Rock has always professed (although many times hypothetically) to ally itself with rebellion and to the dismantling of the status quo." (Juno 4) In the 1960s, racial tensions far surpassed gender ones; the Supremes encountered far more prejudice because of their black skins than Janis Joplin did because of her gender. But in the late sixties and early seventies, the faultlines that held together America's illusions of bliss fractured, and out of the cracks came people fighting for sel... ... Juno Books, 1996. Laven, Anna. Telephone interview. 11 April 2004. McDonnell, Evelyn and Ann Powers, ed. rock she wrote: women write about rock, pop, and rap. New York: Copper Square Press, 1995. Morgan, Joan. When Chickenheads Come Home to Roost: A Hip Hop Feminist Breaks It Down. New York: Touchstone Books, 1999. O ¹Dair, Barbara, ed. Trouble Girls: The Rolling Stone Book of Women in Rock. New York: Random House, 1997. O ¹Hara, Craig. The Philosophy of Punk. San Francisco: AK Press, 1999. Sinker, Dan. Punk Planet: The Collected Interviews. New York: Adeline Press, 2003. Sinker, Dan.  ³Venus. ² Punk Planet July-Aug 2002: 64-67. Swirling, Ross. Telephone interview. 11 April 2004. Turner, Chà ©rie. Everything You Need to Know about the Riot Grrrl Movement: The Feminism of a New Generation. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2001.

Corruption and Neoliberalism in the Philippines Essay

Despite this year’s onslaught of devastating earthquakes, factional rebel sieges, and most recently, record breaking typhoons, the Philippines is doing surprisingly well for itself. In fact, The Economist Intelligence Unit reports that though the wreckage caused by last weeks Supertyphoon Haiyan will likely slow GDP somewhat, economic damage will not be significant, the Eastern Visayas region accounting for only two per cent of the countrys GDP. Economically, at least, the Philippines has had good year: the first half of 2013 saw GDP growth at 7. 3 percent, the highest growth rate in Asia; it saw seen record foreign direct investment levels; moved itself from low-income to middle-income country in the World Bank country database; and for the first time, became a creditor rather than debtor to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (Desierto, The Economist). Nevertheless, the poverty rate remains at 27. percent with little movement in the past five years, unemployment is at seven percent, and underemployment continues to hover around twenty percent (The Economist Intelligence Unit). Despite record growth levels in the Philippines, large numbers of Filipinos still struggle to find employment and meet their basic needs. Foreign Policy and Fund for Peace have named the Philippines as one of their top 60 failed states in the 2013 Failed States Report. Ranking 59 out of 178 countries, the Philippines scored a slightly improved but critical 82. 8 (â€Å"Failed States†). Five of its worst scores occurred in: security apparatus, including issues like riots and fatalities from rebel activity; factionalized elites, including power struggles and flawed elections; group grievance, including iolence between groups; state legitimacy, including corruption, level of government effectiveness, and illicit economies; and demographic pressures, including population growth, natural disasters, and disease (â€Å"The Indicators†). The aftermath of recent disasters and rebel conflict are likely to raise these rates for the coming report, bringing the Philippines closer to the brink of failure. Why, in the midst of unprecedented economic growth, is the country faring so poorly in terms of development indicators like poverty and political stability? Mainstream development discourse assures that rapid economic growth leads to evelopment and poverty reduction, but this has yet to be the case for Filipinos. In a previous paper I discuss the issue of the accuracy, reliability, and focus of poverty measurements and the development discourse itself, but there are larger factors at play as well. In this paper, I discuss how the history of corruption and neoliberalism, two contested but highly influential issues, have negatively impacted development as a whole in the Philippines and perpetuated the poverty of its population. According to a recent poll by the online periodical The Philippine Star, an verwhelming majority of the Filipino online public viewed corruption as the single largest cause of poverty in the Philippines. Revisiting Transparency International’s statistics in the Corruption Perceptions Index, Filipinos scored their country a 34 on a scale of 0-100, with O being highly corrupt and 100 being very clean (2012). Personal experience recalls an overt general mistrust in government officials having the people’s interests at heart, and a series of news reports detailing impeachments and scandals related to graft and corruption within both government and ongovernmental organizations from 2010 to 2012. Despite being an independent democracy since the late 1940s (the Marcos regime’s dictatorial break notwithstanding), the Philippines has suffered corrupt government officials in almost every presidency, most notably those of Marcos, Estrada and Arroyo (The Economist Intelligence Unit). According to Dr. Diane Desierto in an op-ed calling out to current President Benigno Aquino, corruption has strained the Philippine economy for decades, and the unrecoverable public funds lost to corruption at the cost of national investment is a national outrage. Most recently in the news is the Pork Barrel Scandal, where President Aquino and the ombudsmen have charged 3 senators, 2 former lawmakers, and a businesswoman for misusing over $200 million in state funds (Hookway). Pork Barrel is a state allocation of funds set aside for senators to use on development projects of their choice, of which the president says the accused used for fabricated project proposals to take personal kickbacks. Public protests against the scandal have been massive, and the people are calling for not only the eradication of the Pork Barrel fund itself, but of the president’s own spending fund as well. President Aquino faces the dilemma of upholding his strict anticorruption agenda, appealing to the public, and maintaining support of powerful lawmakers and congressmen (Hookway). James Hookway argues that Aquinds decision on the scandal will heavily determine foreign investor confidence in the Philippines, influencing the path of the countrys development. Indeed most development professionals agree that corruption and bad governance are inversely related to the development of a country. The worst indicators in the Philippine Failed States Report outwardly suggest governance issues re a threat to the state and a major cause of internal violence and conflict. Good governance has been the recent focus of many World Bank projects, the group stating that, â€Å"a capable and accountable state creates opportunities for poor people, provides better services, and improves development outcomes† (qtd. in Bello, â€Å"Is Corruption the Cause? â€Å"). Jeffrey Sachs names governance failures as a top factor in a countrys economic stagnation and decline; and William Easterly argues that bad governments, not a poverty trap, are sole culprits in the economic decline of a country (Sachs 57; Easterly 43). Easterlys stance on corruption is tough: continuing to provide aid to countries with corrupt governments is inefficient, as most countries with bad governments fare significantly worse even with aid than do countries with good governments (42). In the Philippines, all signs in mainstream discourse point to corruption as the major reason for continuing poverty despite high economic growth. Yet there is a small but growing number of people arguing otherwise. According to activists like Walden Bello, while corruption is detrimental to the trust and moral bonds of a democracy, it is not the principal cause of poverty. Between 1990 and 000, he argues, the Philippines and China reported the same levels of corruption; yet China grew by 10. 3 percent, while the Philippines grew by only 3. 3 percent (â€Å"Is Corruption the Cause? â€Å"). It is not corruption, he says, but the negative effects of neoliberal adjustment policies that have maintained poverty levels at the rate they are today (Bello). As Peet and Hartwick explain, neoliberalism was the economic response to Keynesian economics and the failures of Import Substitution Industrialization (IS’) that took hold of development discourse in the 1970s with the rise of the Reagan and Thatcher administrations. Influenced by Hayek’s theories, neoliberalism favored free markets and minimal government involvement outside of controlling interest rates and money supply (Peet 78-83). In response to the economic crises brought on by ISI in the 70s and 80s, developed nations and international organizations (10s) came up with the Washington Consensus, a list of policy reforms and conditions for debtor countries to the IMF to follow in order to receive loans. Reforms included fiscal discipline, decreased public expenditures, tax reform, low interest rates, trade liberalization and deregulation, privatization of public goods, and an increase in oreign direct investment (FDI) (Peet 84). According to Walden Bello, neoliberalism has become a hegemony of economic paradigm, especially in the Philippines. After the forced exile of Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquinds rise to power, Bello says the country was more than primed for neoliberal structural adjustment policies when it turned to the World Bank during an economic crisis in the 80s (â€Å"Neoliberalism†). A number of factors led the Philippines to strongly adhere to neoliberal policies. One, technocrats close to former President Aquino were highly influenced by Reagan, Thatcher, and the free-market economic paradigm. Two, the University of the Philippines School of Economics published its anti-Marcos White Paper on the Philippine Economy, capturing the popular mood of the time that Marcos was proof that the state had become subject to ‘crony capitalism’ and was an inefficient source of development progress. Three, international events like the collapse of European socialism, the successful revitalization of U. S. and British economies, and the rise of newly industrialized Asian countries (though Bello argues these countries’ successes bore more from protectionism than neoliberalism) inspired the Philippine elites and middle class, who had the most influence over olicy discourse (â€Å"Neoliberalism†). With ISI and Keynesian economics shrouded by bad memories of the Marcos regime, and the Communist partys preoccupation with the anti-fascist struggle, Bello states there were no credible alternatives for the country but neoliberalism. In the 90s the Ramos administration kicked structural adjustment into high gear, being one of the few administrations in the region to fully adhere to IMF conditions. Focal to Philippine adjustment was massive tariff liberalization and deregulation to increase FDI and speculative investment, as well as a furious signing of multilateral ariff agreements with the WTO, ASEAN, the IMF, and the United Nations (Bello). The economy grew 4 percent during Ramos’ presidency, until the Asian Crisis hit the Philippines in 1997. Suddenly, $4 6 billion in speculative investments tlew out ot the country, triggering a downward slide into economic recession and stagnation. With the WTO Agreement in Agriculture, the Philippines went from a food net exporter to a net importer (particularly in rice, a main staple of the local agriculture sector), sparking a crisis of food insecurity and a loss of Job security in the agricultural industry. The Philippines also saw its local textile and manufacturing industries fail: â€Å"by the early years of this decade, the countrys textile industry had shrunk from 200 to less than 10 firms† (Bello, â€Å"Neoliberalism†). Loss of local industry was supposed to be bolstered by consumer welfare and increased spending as foreign investment brought diverse and stable employment; but this has not been the case for the Philippines; rather unemployment and underemployment rates have remained at a consistent high. Despite this and recent protests against globalization in the country, neoliberalism emains the central focus of economic policy in the Philippines (Bello). Ligaya Lindio McGovern also feels neoliberal policies and unequal globalization have been detrimental to the welfare of the Philippines, not only from a macroeconomic standpoint, but from a micropolitical level as well. According to McGovern, neoliberal policies implemented in the Philippines have only proven to benefit foreign actors and investors, perpetuating poverty in the country and detrimentally affecting the welfare of women and youth in particular (2). Food insecurity due to restricted agricultural access in world markets and an increased ependency on imports (coupled with fixed high prices to maximize profits) hurts women as they are mainly responsible for the nutritional welfare of the family. Privatization of water and social services puts foreign control over formerly local businesses, limiting the poor’s access to health care and clean water. Foreign influence over industry has led to the contractualization of labor, meaning short- term, low pay work that puts workers in a weak bargaining position. This has led to a massive loss of Jobs, setting preconditions for migration as Filipinos (mostly female domestic workers) go abroad to find work. This has subsequently led to an increased vulnerability in Filipino women for exploitation, downward mobility, and loneliness, and has been a root cause of the rise of human trafficking that has plagued the Philippines in recent years (McGovern 5-14). Ligaya argues that it is neoliberalism and the one-sided distribution of globalization-not corruption-that has led to a rise in militant groups such as GABRIELA, Migrante International, and the New People’s Army, all of whom fght against foreign and American imperialism through economic policy (McGovern 21). In recent years, the ideas of Bello and McGovern have taken hold, particularly hrough development economists like Easterly. While lamenting bad governments as a source of gross inefficiency in foreign aid appropriation, Easterly also speaks strongly against the macroeconomic, universally applicable solutions to poverty offered up by neoliberal policies. He argues such policies are too big and too utopian; with too much distance between principals at the top and implementers at the bottom to provide proper feedback and accountability, too much collective responsibility to create incentive, and too many large, nonspecific tasks bogging down change agents on the field to be effective (14-18). What, then, in light of both arguments as either corruption or neoliberalism as the major source ot poverty and inequali i the Philippines to do to resolve its gap between economic and social development? For Bello, the administration must rid itself of the neoliberal hegemonic stronghold and adopt alternative economic policies that focus on local empowerment of the people and permanent national employment. â€Å"Getting over neoliberalism,† he says, involves â€Å"†¦ getting beyond the worship of numbers that often acts as a shroud to the real, beyond the scientism that masks itself as a science† (Bello, â€Å"Neoliberalism†). McGovern advocates a similar, though more drastic route: a new Philippine state altogether that creates national alternatives to the neoliberal agenda (21). Like Stiglitz argues in his book, McGovern feels that true globalization has never been experienced, as powerful, industrialized countries controlling the flow of goods maintain protectionist policies in their own states while pushing for liberalization that benefits them in poorer countries (3; Stiglitz 62-101). In order for globalization to function, protectionist policies must also be advocated in industrializing countries, if not to the extent that ISI brought them in other regions. Proponents of free trade and economic development, on the other hand, argue that the Philippines must maintain its rapid GDP growth, continue to improve speculative investment climate, implement a broader tax base, and increase foreign ownership of its economic sectors (Elkan). In other words, institutions like the IMF continue to push neoliberal policy as an effective means for development. Increasing speculative investment and foreign direct investment means combatting corruption and bad governance for most proponents of the dominant discourse; the corruption scandals that have haunted the Philippines for decades have been a indrance to a thriving economy and led to increased political violence, and must be dealt with in order to see a reduction of poverty in the country. Ultimately, though, it is difficult to see how focusing on either one factor will lead to any real improvement in social welfare without also addressing the other; the two are both too entrenched in Philippine government. These are not dichotomous factors, rather they are deeply intertwined and coexistent in influencing poverty and social instability. Personal experience lends insight into instances where both corruption and neoliberal effects on society were clear. With a stipend affording me middle-class status in my neighborhood, I still could not afford to buy rice from the local farmers, and could barely afford the only slightly cheaper imported rice. During election time, the Congresswoman led a mass campaign to expand the main highway, only to abandon the project post-elections, leaving the road broken and difficult to traverse. Viewing development as a multifaceted and interconnected process comprising both macro and micropolitical elements, resolutions to development issues must also be viewed as such (Sen). Poverty reduction and development in the Philippines must nvolve both the eradication of rampant corruption and alternative options for neoliberal policies, which have largely failed the country outside of real GDP. Additionally, the government must focus its efforts on the needs of its people, rather than its own personal agenda, according to Desierto. In light of the recent typhoon and previous natural disasters, she says, â€Å"not a single administration has ever committed to making an integrated natural disaster prevention, remediation, and reconstruction system our countrys highest national security priority’ (â€Å"Corruption, Climate, and Congress†). Every administration nas promised he eradication ot corruption, though. Thus, it seems that the administration has allowed foreign institutions and its own political agenda to distract itself from the true needs of its people, which lie at the core of development. The key to poverty reduction then, in the context of the Philippines, is the increased and direct participation of Filipinos in decision-making for future economic and social policies.

Discrimination in the Holocaust

â€Å"Bacilli,† â€Å"spongers,† â€Å"parasites,† â€Å"poisonous mushrooms,† â€Å"rats,† â€Å"leeches,† and so forth (Burleigh and Wippermann, 1991, p. 42). This is the language Hitler used to describe â€Å"the Jew†. Although one may argue that these metaphors were used as a rhetorical device, the terms employed implied extermination as one possible fate for the Jews. On September 1919, Hitler had been assigned by his commander in the List Regiment of the German army to monitor meetings of the German Worker's Party.Shortly after, he discovered his affinity with much of the party's program and joined the organization. Hitler's extraordinary oratorical ability quickly propelled him to the leadership of the party in July 1921, where he moved his comrades to a more militant position in regard to the Jews. The success of the Final Solution required the cooperation of the political leadership and bureaucracy, which promulgated decrees t hat segregated Jews from the rest of society.These steps included the enactment of laws that defined who was a Jew, followed by a census of the Jewish population and the requirement that Jews register their assets for the eventual expropriation of their property and businesses (â€Å"Aryanization†). In the stage preceding the roundup of Jews for deportation, the expectation was that Jews would be used for forced labor. In order to identify Jews they were required to wear an armband with a Star of David. Later, Germans insisted on this rule in all countries occupied by them.Hitler also began to disseminate in his speeches the â€Å"stab in the back† accusation that held Jews responsible for Germany's defeat in World War I and the country's subsequent economic and political ills. The phrase â€Å"stab in the back† was first used by General Paul von Hindenburg when he was summoned by the Reichstag to explain Germany's defeat, but at the time he did not use it as a condemnation of the Jews. Hitler used the phrase exclusively against the Jews for purposes of political propaganda. Throughout the rest of the life of the Weimar Republic, Hitler made antisemitism his primary focus in building his political movement.The autobiography Mein Kampf remains an uncanny record of Hitler's obsession with the Jews and provides insight into the origin of the Nazi racial laws of the 1930s and the subsequent ideas that propelled the Nazis to murder the Jews of Europe. In Mein Kampf, Hitler devoted more than twenty pages to prostitution and syphilis. He blamed the spread of both on the Jews'effort to corrupt the â€Å"racial purity† of the German people. The Jews were accused not only of attempting to subvert the nation politically but also of undermining its racial foundation.Throughout the Weimar Republic, Hitler's violent language against the Jews was implemented in deed by both the SA and the SS. Jews were an easy target because, although constituting only 1 percent of the population, they were visible in all aspects of German life. Their most obvious presence was in politics, where the Nazis were able to connect Jews with bolshevism. Besides, Jews were largely found in the major cities such as Berlin. The cities also were the centers of banking and commerce, and Jews were prominent as bankers in Weimar Germany.Although Jews were not owners of the increasingly important credit banks, some of the largest of these banks employed Jewish managers (Niewyk, 1980). Jewish visibility was most pronounced in the unique artistic and intellectual flowering known as Weimar culture. Jews were proud that a quarter of all the Nobel prizes won by Germans by 1933 were won by German Jews. Finally, Jews had every reason to be proud of their military record during World War I, despite charges made by right-wing groups that Jews had evaded military service.The participation of Jews in the war entitled them to believe that through the crucible of batt le, they had proved their loyalty beyond question. This was not to be. Between 1933 and 1935, the German government enacted laws that removed Jews from public life and revoked their rights as citizens. Concurrent with the passage of anti-Jewish legislation, on July 14, 1933, the government issued the Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring, allowing for the sterilization of anyone recognized as suffering from hereditary diseases, including manic-depressive disease, genetic blindness, genetic deafness, and other chronic diseases.The policies for each group, however, had different objectives. Sterilization and, later, euthanasia were aimed at improving the health of the national community through a program of â€Å"negative eugenics,† or the elimination of the unfit from society. The laws directed toward the Jews had a different intent. Jews were characterized as an active and dangerous enemy that endangered the very existence of the nation. Like traditional an tisemitism, which portrayed Jews as enemies of Christendom, the Nazis viewed themselves in an apocalyptic struggle with consequences that would determine the fate of the Aryan race.German government promulgated the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service on April 7, 1933, barring anyone not of Aryan descent from public employment and establishing in law the principle of racial differences between Jews and all other Germans. The 1933 law represented the link between Nazi ideology and public policy. Inasmuch as the Nazi vision was one of creating a utopia based on racial purity, the law effectively excluded Jews from all key areas of German life.The Civil Service Law removed the Jews from the state structure, and subsequent laws regulated Jewish physicians to â€Å"protect† the biological health of the nation. The disbarment of lawyers had the objective of protecting the social fabric of society, and the laws regarding schools, universities, the press, and the cultural professions aimed at restoring the primacy of Aryan culture. A 1933 directive ordering companies to fire Jewish employees said, â€Å"It is not religion but race that is decisive. Christianized Jews are thus equally affected.† (Miller, 1995, p. 18) Although this was only partially enforced until 1938, this definition increased the number of those considered Jews from approximately 540,000 by religious profession to a pool of possibly 700,000 by genealogy. The problem arising from these objectives was to determine who was a Jew and what constituted membership in that group. One of the first Nazi definitions of a Jew came from Alfred Rosenberg, head of the Nazi Party's foreign-policy department, who stated, â€Å"A Jew is he whose parents on either side are nationally Jews.Anyone who has a Jewish husband or wife is henceforth a Jew. † (p. 11) In April 1933, a government decree designated as non-Aryan anyone who had a Jewish parent or a Jewish grandparent; the p arent or grandparent was presumed to be Jewish if he or she belonged to the Jewish religion. This definition remained operative until September 15, 1935, when the Nuremberg Laws were proclaimed at a special session of the Reichstag summoned to Nuremberg during the annual Nazi Party rally in that city.The law defined a Jew as â€Å"anyone who had descended from at least three Jewish grandparents or from two Jewish grandparents and belonged to the Jewish religious community on September 15, 1935, or joined the community on a subsequent date or was married to a Jewish person on September 15, 1935, or married a Jew on a subsequent date or was the offspring of a marriage contracted with a three-quarter or a full Jew after the Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor had come into force or was the offspring of an extramarital relationship with a three-quarter or full Jew and was born out of wedlock after July 31, 1936.† (Hilberg, 1961, p. 48) Not defined as a Jew but counte d as a Mischling, or of mixed Jewish blood, was â€Å"any person who descended from two Jewish grandparents but who did not adhere to the Jewish religion on September 15, 1935 and who did not join it at any subsequent time and was not married to a Jewish person on the September 15 date and who did not marry such a person at any subsequent time. † Such persons were designated as Mischlinge of the first degree. Any person descended from one Jewish grandparent was designated as a Mischling of the second degree.Thus the non-Aryans were split into two groups, Jews and Mischlinge, with the latter exempt from the subsequent destruction process. However, the Mischling was excluded from the civil service and the Nazi Party, and was restricted to the rank of a common soldier in the army. Mischlinge also could not marry Germans without official consent. The definition of who was a Jew was determined after a prolonged debate between the antisemitic zealots in the Nazi Party, who saw the Mischling as a carrier of the â€Å"Jewish influence,† and the civil service, which wanted to protect â€Å"that part which is German.† (p. 47) The victory of those who would protect the part-Jew, however, was no solace for the Jewish community. After the promulgation of the Nuremberg Laws, Jews now found themselves not only socially ostracized but also denied access to German law and the courts for protection. Thinking that Hitler's animus toward Jews was directed at Jews from the East who were living in Germany, German Jews found that under the Nuremberg Laws, the Nazis would not distinguish among Jews in enforcing their racial policy.Kristallnacht marked a turning point for Germany's Jews and, by extension, for all Jews who would be victims of the Holocaust. These events witnessed the government's legitimizing violence and brutality against the Jews. The events leading to Kristallnacht, or Night of the Broken Glass, began on October 7, 1938, when the Nazis decreed t hat the letter â€Å"J† be stamped on all Jewish passports and identity papers. On the same day, the Polish government announced that their nationals living abroad would require the purchase of a stamp on their passports or lose their Polish nationality.Polish consulates had also been instructed not to renew the passports of Jews who had lived abroad for more than five years which left many Polish Jews stateless. The discrimination of Jews was paralleled by the German effort to exterminate the gypsies of Europe. As in the case of the Jews, Nazi ideology viewed the gypsies as subhuman because of their rootlessness. Gypsies, lacking a country of their own, were perceived as parasites living off the host nations that allowed them to reside within their borders.In both Germany and Austria, where gypsies were victims of severe discrimination, numerous regulations that limited their movement and rights were rigorously enforced. Although population data on the gypsies are difficult to assess, many scholars estimate that about 1. 5 million lived in Europe on the eve of World War II (Friedman, 1980). The Nazi persecution of the gypsies mirrored that of the Jews. In September 1933, gypsies were arrested throughout Germany in accordance with the Law against Habitual Criminals. The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 that defined the status of Jews in Germany also included regulations with regard to the gypsies.For example, marriages between gypsies and Germans were forbidden The Research Office for the Science of Inheritance, which in 1937 was renamed the Research Office for Race Hygiene and Population, declared that 90 percent of the approximately 28,000 German Rom (gypsies) were Mischlinge, and therefore non-Aryans. As part of the Nazi program to eliminate â€Å"lives undeserving of living,† gypsies were designated as asocials and a threat to public health. Viewed as parasites feeding off the body of the German people, most were sent to Dachau, where many underwent fo rced sterilization.Although the bulk of the gypsies in both Germany and Austria were considered non-Aryan, there was the matter of â€Å"pure† gypsies. In October 1942, Himmler issued a decree that distinguished between Mischling gypsies and those considered of pure blood, whereby the latter would be permitted a certain degree of freedom of movement. Ultimately Himmler's directive exempted some 13,000 Sinti and 1,017 Lalleri (the gypsies had divided into the two tribes centuries earlier) from the fate awaiting the great majority of the gypsies.On December 16, 1942, Himmler issued an order that in effect called for the Final Solution of the gypsy problem whereby they would be sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau. Exceptions were made for those â€Å"socially adapted† to German life, former Wehrmacht soldiers, and those necessary for wartime labor. However, in each of these categories, those who were exempted were to be sterilized. The Himmler order of December 16 was to seal the fate of Europe's gypsy population (Hancock, 1996). In comparing the fate of the gypsies with the Jews, the words of Yehuda Bauer shed light on the distinctions that the Nazis made between the two targeted peoples:â€Å"Gypsies were not Jews and therefore there was no need to kill all of them. Those Gypsies who were of â€Å"pure blood† or who were not considered dangerous on a racial level could continue to exist, under strict supervision. The Mischlinge were . . . doomed to death. The difference between the fate of the Gypsies and that of the Jews is clear. The Jews were slated for total annihilation, whereas, the Gypsies were sentenced to selective mass murder on a vast scale. † (Bauer, 1990, p. 638) References Bauer, Yehudo. (1990). Gypsies. In Gutman, ed., Encyclopedia of the Holocaust(Vol 2) (p. 638).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   New York: Macmillan. Burleigh, Michael and Wippermann,Wolfgang. (1991). The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945. New   Ã‚   York: Cambridge University Press, p. 42. Friedman, Philip. (1980). Roads to Extinction: Essays on the Holocaust. Philadelphia: Jewish   Ã‚   Publication Society, p. 382. Hancock, Ian. (1996). Responses to the Romani Holocaust. In Alan S. Rosenbaum , ed., Is the    Holocaust Unique? (p. 44). Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. Hilberg, Raul. (1961). The Destruction of the European Jews. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, p. 48. Niewyk, Donald L. (1980). The Jews in Weimar Germany. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University   Ã‚   Press, p. 14. Miller, Richard Lawrence. (1995). Nazi Justiz: Law of the Holocaust. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, p.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   18.